References
Potts, S. G. et al. Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25, 345–353 (2010).
Lautenbach, S., Seppelt, R., Liebscher, J. & Dormann, C. F. Spatial and temporal trends of global pollination benefit. PLoS ONE 7, e35954 (2012).
Ollerton, J., Winfree, R. & Tarrant, S. How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals? Oikos 120, 321–326 (2011).
Rodger, J. G. et al. Widespread vulnerability of flowering plant seed production to pollinator declines. Sci. Adv. 7, eabd3524 (2021).
Biesmeijer, J. C. et al. Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science 313, 351–354 (2006).
Bennett, J. M. et al. Land use and pollinator dependency drives global patterns of pollen limitation in the Anthropocene. Nat. Commun. 11, 3999 (2020).
Tylianakis, J. M., Didham, R. K., Bascompte, J. & Wardle, D. A. Global change and species interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol. Lett. 11, 1351–1363 (2008).
Hegland, S. J., Nielsen, A., Lázaro, A., Bjerknes, A.-L. & Totland, Ø. How does climate warming affect plant–pollinator interactions? Ecol. Lett. 12, 184–195 (2009).
Thébault, E. & Fontaine, C. Stability of ecological communities and the architecture of mutualistic and trophic networks. Science 329, 853–856 (2010).
Lever, J. J., van Nes, E. H., Scheffer, M. & Bascompte, J. The sudden collapse of pollinator communities. Ecol. Lett. 17, 350–359 (2014).
Valdovinos, F. S. et al. Species traits and network structure predict the success and impacts of pollinator invasions. Nat. Commun. 9, 2153 (2018).
Waser, N. M., Chittka, L., Price, M. V., Williams, N. M. & Ollerton, J. Generalization in pollination systems, and why it matters. Ecology 77, 1043–1060 (1996).
Brosi, B. J. Pollinator specialization: from the individual to the community. New Phytol. 210, 1190–1194 (2016).
Elmqvist, T. et al. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Front. Ecol. Environ. 1, 488–494 (2003).
Waser, N. M. & Ollerton, J. Plant–Pollinator Interactions: From Specialization to Generalization (Univ. of Chicago Press, 2006).
Ashman, T.-L., Arceo-Gómez, G., Bennett, J. M. & Knight, T. M. Is heterospecific pollen receipt the missing link in understanding pollen limitation of plant reproduction? Am. J. Bot. 107, 845–847 (2020).
Garibaldi, L. A. et al. Trait matching of flower visitors and crops predicts fruit set better than trait diversity. J. Appl. Ecol. 52, 1436–1444 (2015).
CaraDonna, P. J. et al. Seeing through the static: the temporal dimension of plant–animal mutualistic interactions. Ecol. Lett. 24, 149–161 (2021).
Burkle, L. A., Marlin, J. C. & Knight, T. M. Plant–pollinator interactions over 120 years: loss of species, co-occurrence, and function. Science 339, 1611–1615 (2013).
Jacquemin, F. et al. Loss of pollinator specialization revealed by historical opportunistic data: insights from network-based analysis. PLoS ONE 15, e0235890 (2020).
Mathiasson, M. E. & Rehan, S. M. Wild bee declines linked to plant–pollinator network changes and plant species introductions. Insect Conserv. Divers. 13, 595–605 (2020).
Bennett, J. M. et al. A review of European studies on pollination networks and pollen limitation, and a case study designed to fill in a gap. AoB Plants 10, ply068 (2018).
Doré, M., Fontaine, C. & Thébault, E. Relative effects of anthropogenic pressures, climate, and sampling design on the structure of pollination networks at the global scale. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 1266–1280 (2021).
Rader, R. et al. Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 113, 146–151 (2016).
Post, E. et al. Ecological dynamics across the arctic associated with recent climate change. Science 325, 1355–1358 (2009).
Hung, K.-L. J., Kingston, J. M., Albrecht, M., Holway, D. A. & Kohn, J. R. The worldwide importance of honey bees as pollinators in natural habitats. Proc. R. Soc. B 285, 20172140 (2018).
Kearns, C. A. Anthophilous fly distribution across an elevation gradient. Am. Midl. Nat. 127, 172–182 (1992).
Kevan, P. G. Insect pollination of high arctic flowers. J. Ecol. 60, 831–847 (1972).
Tiusanen, M., Hebert, P. D. N., Schmidt, N. M. & Roslin, T. One fly to rule them all—muscid flies are the key pollinators in the arctic. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 283, 20161271 (2016).
Weiner, C., Werner, M., Linsenmair, K. E. & Blüthgen, N. Land use intensity in grasslands: changes in biodiversity, species composition and specialisation in flower visitor networks. Basic Appl. Ecol. 12, 292–299 (2011).
Rader, R., Edwards, W., Westcott, D. A., Cunningham, S. A. & Howlett, B. G. Pollen transport differs among bees and flies in a human-modified landscape. Divers. Distrib. 17, 519–529 (2011).
Bartley, T. J. et al. Food web rewiring in a changing world. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 3, 345–354 (2019).
Ghisbain, G., Gérard, M., Wood, T. J., Hines, H. M. & Michez, D. Expanding insect pollinators in the Anthropocene. Biol. Rev. 96, 2755–2770 (2021).
Silén, F. Blombiologiska iakttagelser i Kittilä Lappmark. Medd. Soc. Fauna Flora Fennica 31, 80–99 (1906).
Clavel, J., Julliard, R. & Devictor, V. Worldwide decline of specialist species: toward a global functional hom*ogenization? Front. Ecol. Environ. 9, 222–228 (2011).
Erhardt, A. Pollination of Dianthus superbus L. Flora 185, 99–106 (1991).
Witt, T., Jürgens, A., Geyer, R. & Gottsberger, G. Nectar dynamics and sugar composition in flowers of Silene and Saponaria species (Caryophyllaceae). Plant Biol. 1, 334–345 (1999).
Morales, C. L. & Traveset, A. Interspecific pollen transfer: magnitude, prevalence and consequences for plant fitness. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 27, 221–238 (2008).
Ashman, T.-L. & Arceo-Gómez, G. Toward a predictive understanding of the fitness costs of heterospecific pollen receipt and its importance in co-flowering communities. Am. J. Bot. 100, 1061–1070 (2013).
Orford, K. A., Vaughan, I. P. & Memmott, J. The forgotten flies: the importance of non-syrphid Diptera as pollinators. Proc. R. Soc. B 282, 20142934 (2015).
Stavert, J. R. et al. Hairiness: the missing link between pollinators and pollination. PeerJ 4, e2779 (2016).
Doyle, T. et al. Pollination by hoverflies in the Anthropocene. Proc. R. Soc. B 287, 20200508 (2020).
Albrecht, M., Schmid, B., Hautier, Y. & Müller, C. B. Diverse pollinator communities enhance plant reproductive success. Proc. R. Soc. B. 279, 4845–4852 (2012).
Fründ, J., Dormann, C. F., Holzschuh, A. & Tscharntke, T. Bee diversity effects on pollination depend on functional complementarity and niche shifts. Ecology 94, 2042–2054 (2013).
Magrach, A., Molina, F. P. & Bartomeus, I. Niche complementarity among pollinators increases community-level plant reproductive success. Peer Commun. J. 1, e1 (2021).
Giménez-Benavides, L., Dötterl, S., Jürgens, A., Escudero, A. & Iriondo, J. M. Generalist diurnal pollination provides greater fitness in a plant with nocturnal pollination syndrome: assessing the effects of a Silene–Hadena interaction. Oikos 116, 1461–1472 (2007).
Vázquez, D. P., Blüthgen, N., Cagnolo, L. & Chacoff, N. P. Uniting pattern and process in plant–animal mutualistic networks: a review. Ann. Bot. 103, 1445–1457 (2009).
Vizentin-Bugoni, J., Debastiani, V. J., Bastazini, V. A. G., Maruyama, P. K. & Sperry, J. H. Including rewiring in the estimation of the robustness of mutualistic networks. Methods Ecol. Evol. 11, 106–116 (2020).
Brosi, B. J. & Briggs, H. M. Single pollinator species losses reduce floral fidelity and plant reproductive function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110, 13044–13048 (2013).
Pekkarinen, A. & Teräs, I. Zoogeography of Bombus and Psithyrus in northwestern Europe (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Ann. Zool. Fennici 30, 187–208 (1993).
Arbetman, M. P., Gleiser, G., Morales, C. L., Williams, P. & Aizen, M. A. Global decline of bumblebees is phylogenetically structured and inversely related to species range size and pathogen incidence. Proc. R. Soc. B 284, 20170204 (2017).
Kerr, J. T. et al. Climate change impacts on bumblebees converge across continents. Science 349, 177–180 (2015).
Arceo-Gómez, G., Barker, D., Stanley, A., Watson, T. & Daniels, J. Plant–pollinator network structural properties differentially affect pollen transfer dynamics and pollination success. Oecologia 192, 1037–1045 (2020).
de Santiago-Hernández, M. H. et al. The role of pollination effectiveness on the attributes of interaction networks: from floral visitation to plant fitness. Ecology 100, e02803 (2019).
Koch, V., Zoller, L., Bennett, J. M. & Knight, T. M. Pollinator dependence but no pollen limitation for eight plants occurring north of the Arctic Circle. Ecol. Evol. 10, 13664–13672 (2020).
Loboda, S., Savage, J., Buddle, C. M., Schmidt, N. M. & Høye, T. T. Declining diversity and abundance of High Arctic fly assemblages over two decades of rapid climate warming. Ecography 41, 265–277 (2018).
Høye, T. T., Post, E., Schmidt, N. M., Trøjelsgaard, K. & Forchhammer, M. C. Shorter flowering seasons and declining abundance of flower visitors in a warmer Arctic. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 759–763 (2013).
Soroye, P., Newbold, T. & Kerr, J. Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents. Science 367, 685–688 (2020).
Zattara, E. E. & Aizen, M. A. Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness. One Earth 4, 114–123 (2021).
Bartomeus, I., Stavert, J. R., Ward, D. & Aguado, O. Historical collections as a tool for assessing the global pollination crisis. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 374, 20170389 (2019).
Rakosy, D., Ashman, T.-L., Zoller, L., Stanley, A. & Knight, T. M. Integration of historic collections can shed light on patterns of change in plant–pollinator interactions and pollination service. Func. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.14211 (2022).
Hyne, C. J. C. W. Through Arctic Lapland (A. and C. Black, 1898).
Knuth, P. Handbuch der Blütenbiologie, unter Zugrundelegung von Herman Müllers Werk: ‘Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten’ (W. Engelmann, 1898).
Zoller, L. & Knight, T. M. Historical records of plant-insect interactions in subarctic Finland.BMC Res. Notes 15, 317 (2022).
Zoller, L. & Knight, T. M. Historical records of plant–insect interactions in subarctic Finland. figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.5828663.v4 (2022).
Zoller, L., Bennett, J. M. & Knight, T. M. Diel-scale temporal dynamics in the abundance and composition of pollinators in the arctic summer. Sci. Rep. 10, 21187 (2020).
R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2020).
Hsieh, T. C., Ma, K. H. & Chao, A. iNEXT: an R package for rarefaction and extrapolation of species diversity (Hill numbers). Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 1451–1456 (2016).
Klotz, S., Kühn, I. & Durka, W. Biolflor Database (UFZ—Centre for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle, 2002); https://www.ufz.de/biolflor/index.jsp
Oksanen, J. et al. vegan: Community ecology package. R version 2.5.7 (2020).
Chao, A., Chazdon, R. L., Colwell, R. K. & Shen, T.-J. Abundance-based similarity indices and their estimation when there are unseen species in samples. Biometrics 62, 361–371 (2006).
Dormann, C. F. et al. bipartite: Visualising bipartite networks and calculating some (ecological) indices. R version 2.16 (2021).
Blüthgen, N., Menzel, F. & Blüthgen, N. Measuring specialization in species interaction networks. BMC Ecol. 6, 9 (2006).
Stefan, V. & Knight, T. M. bootstrapnet: Bootstrap network metrics. R version 1.0.0 https://valentinitnelav.github.io/bootstrapnet/ (2021).
Poisot, T., Canard, E., Mouillot, D., Mouquet, N. & Gravel, D. The dissimilarity of species interaction networks. Ecol. Lett. 15, 1353–1361 (2012).
Poisot, T. Dissimilarity of species interaction networks: quantifying the effect of turnover and rewiring. Peer Community Journal 2, e35 (2022).
Dormann, C. F. How to be a specialist? Quantifying specialisation in pollination networks. Netw. Biol. 1, 1 (2011).